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1996 SURVEY

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The Laurels Fund was established in 1978 to honor Sally Self, a pioneering woman of distinction in the accounting profession. The income from the fund, and current contributions to the fund, are used to provide scholarships to women pursuing advanced degrees in accounting.

Some Background

This statistical information is from the only longitudinal demographic study profiling women in accounting from 1970 to present.

The American Woman's Society of Certified Public Accountants (AWSCPA) and the American Society of Women Accountants (ASWA) are organizations founded to promote opportunities for women in the accounting profession. As part of that mission, AWSCPA and ASWA have sponsored a series of surveys to develop a profile of women in accounting and to assess the progress of women in the profession. These surveys have been funded by The Educational Foundation for Women in Accounting (and its predecessor organization, the Educational Foundation of AWSCPA - ASWA). The first joint survey was conducted in 1977, when women represented 30% of the graduates in collegiate programs.

The status of women in accounting has changed significantly over the last thirty years. The latest statistics from the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) show that women earned 54% of the bachelor's degrees in accounting, 47% of the master's degrees and 34% of the Ph.D. degrees in 1994-95. Women currently receive 77% of the associate degrees. Today, women account for slightly more than half of those employed as "accountants and auditors" in the United States as reported by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. This represents a dramatic increase compared to 1950, when there were only 600 women CPAs nationwide. In 1970, women received only 10% of the baccalaureate degrees; by 1977, women received 30% of the degrees from collegiate programs. In 1995, the AICPA reported that women were 53% of the new hires by public accounting firms, and 37% of the professional staff. The same AICPA study reported that women represented 16% of the partners in public accounting firms-however, in large firms (more than 200 members), they represented only 7% of the partners.

In 1995, the Educational Foundation provided funds for another survey. The scope of the survey was expanded to include members of the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants and the Institute of Management Accountants (IMA), in addition to members of AWSCPA and ASWA. A total of 6374 responses were returned by mid-1996. Of those responding, 3535 held membership in the AICPA, 1356 were members of AWSCPA, 2510 were members of ASWA, and 1489 were members of the IMA. The 1996 results are reported in this brochure.

EMPLOYMENT PATTERNS

Employment Status of Women Accountants
 The majority of women accountants continue to be full-time employees. The percentage who are self-employed and work part-time have increased.

Employment Status of Women Accountants

All Respondents 

CPA’S 
1977  1996  1977  1996 
Employed Full-Time 77.0%  74.1%  73.5%  71.8% 
Self-Employed 12.2%  15.1%  16.4%  18.3% 
Employed Part-Time 3.7%  7.1%  4.2%  7.5% 
Unemployed 1.8%  2.0%  1.9%  1.7% 
Retired 2.8%  1.7%  2.0%  0.7% 
Extended Leave 0.8%  0.0%  1.1%  0.0% 
Unreported 1.7%  0.0%  0.9%  0.0% 
  100.0%  100.0%  100.0%  100.0% 

___________________________
Types of Employment

Public accounting still represents the largest employer of women accountants, although there has been some shift away from public accounting.  

Types of Employment

All Respondents 

CPA’S 
1977  1996  1977  1996 
Public Accounting 42.6%  37.3%  57.6%  46.5% 
Education 5.6%  4.0%  6.5%  4.7% 
Government 9.2%  6.2%  6.8%  6.2% 
Private Enterprise 35.7%    23.6   
For Profit  *  42.2%  *  35.2% 
Non-Profit  *  6.8  *  5.4% 
Unreported 6.9%  3.5%  5.5%  2.0% 
  100.0%  100.0%  100.0%  100.0% 

*Data not collected in 1977

___________________________


 Size of Employer in Private Enterprise

Although the largest group of accountants working in the private enterprise category work for small companies with 50 employees or less, employment is relatively evenly distributed over all size employers.  

Size of Employer in Private Enterprise

All Respondents

CPA’S
50 or Less 25.3%  22.1% 
51-100 10.0%  10.4% 
101-500 18.9%  18.9% 
501-1,000 7.6%  7.5% 
1,001-5,000 17.0%  17.8% 
5,001-10,000 5.6%  5.9% 
Over 10,000 15.6%  17.4% 
  100.0%  100.0% 

___________________________
Supervision of Others

Accountants who are full time employees have increased their supervisory responsibilities since 1977, although the self-employed appear to have fewer people to supervise.

Supervision of Others

Self Employed 

Employed Full time 
Number Supervised 1977  1996  1977  1996 
1-5 52.4%  45.7%  46.4%  44.6% 
6-10 8.6%  5.8%  8.7%  13.3% 
11-15 2.2%  1.9%  4.0%  4.1% 
Over 15 3.3%  3.3%  5.2%  7.4% 
None 32.0%  42.9%  34.7%  30.3% 
Unreported 1.5%  0.4%  1.0%  0.3% 
  100.0%  100.0%  100.0%  100.0% 

Employment Patterns In Public Accounting
___________________________
Distribution of Employment in Public Accounting

As shown in an earlier table, the percentage of women accountants responding to this survey employed in public accounting has declined since 1977. Public accounting, however, remains the largest employment category. The large national/international firms employ a significantly smaller portion of those in public accounting in 1996 than in 1977.  

Distribution of Employment in Public Accounting

All Respondents 

CPA's 
1977  1996  1977  1996 
International/National Firms 35.3%  16.1%  38.3%  15.4% 
Regional firms 4.3%  8.9%  4.2%  9.2% 
Local Firms 34.2%  43.8%  35.2%  44.0% 
Own Practice 20.4%  29.4%  20.9%  30.7% 
Other 5.8%  1.8%  1.4%  0.7% 
  100.0%  100.0%  100.0%  100.0% 

___________________________


Responsibilities in Firms Other than Own Practice

Women have made significant gains in levels of responsibility in public accounting sine 1977. In 1977, most women in public accounting were in the entry level positions. By 1996, women had higher levels of responsibility.

Responsibilities in Firms Other than Own Practice All Respondents  CPA's 
  1977  1996  1977  1996 
Partner 2.7%  24.4%  3.8%  27.2% 
Principal 2.2%  8.3%  2.9%  9.7% 
Manager 7.9%  23.9%  11.0%  27.3% 
Supervisor 24.6%  15.9%  28.8%  16.2% 
Non-Supervisory 62.6%  27.5%  53.5%  19.6% 
  100.0%  100.0%  100.0%  100.0% 

___________________________
1996 Responsibility Levels by Size of Firm  

1996 Responsibility Levels by Size of Firm   Int/Natl  Regional  Local  Own 
Partner 11.7%  18.0%  23.9%  55.9% 
Principal 4.3%  1.9%  4.1%  42.6% 
Manager 39.5%  26.7%  22.2%  0.5% 
Supervisor 21.3%  24.3%  15.5%  0.0% 
Staff 23.2%  29.1%  34.3%  0.5% 
Other 0.0%  0.0%  0.0%  0.5% 
  100.0%  100.0%  100.0%  100.0% 

Compensation Levels
___________________________
Annual Compensation from Employment

Salary levels for women accountants have increased substantially since 1977. The median salary has advanced to the $40,000-$49,999 level. In 1996, 45.8% of CPAs and 38.0% of all women accountants earned over $50,000.

Annual Compensation from Employment All Respondents  CPA's 
1977  1996  1977  1996 
Under $15,000 51.3%  7.0%  37.5%  5.7% 
$15,000 to $24,999   39.5%  7.6%  48.6%  5.4% 
$25,000 to $29,999   5.1%    8.3% 7.7%   5.8%
$30,000 to $39,999  2.9%    20.6%  4.4%   18.0%
$40,000 to $49,999  0.5%   18.5%   0.7%   19.3%
$50,000 & Over   0.7%      1.1%  
$50,000 to $59,999    *  12.5%  *   14.1%
$60,000 to $74,999   *   11.8%  *   14.0%
$75,000 to $99,999  *  7.5% *   9.5%
$1000,000 & Over   *   6.2%  *   8.2%
  100.0%  100.0%  100.0%  100.0% 

___________________________


Annual Compensation by Type of Employment

While the median income of the self-employed is lower than median income of accountants employed full time, the self-employed also have a larger percentage earning $75,000 or more. 

Annual Compensation by Type of Employment

All Self Employed Employed Full Time Employed Part Time
$15,000 6.8%  15.2%  1.1%  29.9% 
$15,000 to $24,999   7.3%  13.0%  2.7%  24.0% 
$25,000 to $29,999   8.1%   8.1% 8.0%  11.1%
$30,000 to $39,999  19.9%    14.0% 22.5%  13.2%
$40,000 to $49,999  17.9%  11.7%  20.7%  10.9%
$50,000 to $59,999  12.1% 9.3% 14.0% 4.3%
$60,000 to $74,999 11.4%   9.4% 13.2%  2.0%
$75,000 to $99,999 7.3% 6.8% 8.2% 1.4%
$1000,000 & Over 6.0%  9.4% 6.1%  0.5%
Unreported 3.2% 3.1%  3.5% 2.7%
  100.0%  100.0%  100.0%  100.0% 

Experience Levels
The majority of women accountants have ten or more years of experience.  

Experience Levels All Respondents  CPA’S 
2 years or Less 5.6%  1.6% 
3 to 5 Years 9.7%  9.5% 
6 to 9 Years 17.8%  19.8% 
10 to 14 Years 25.1%  29.5% 
15 to 19 Years 19.8%  21.6% 
20 to 24 Years 10.6%  9.7% 
25 to 29 Years 5.4%  4.6% 
30 Years or More 5.5%  3.7% 
Unreported 0.5%  0.0% 
  100.0%  100.0% 

Career Choices/Changes

Over 55 % of the respondents chose accounting as a career because they felt that it was an interesting/challenging career. Another 27.5% cited available opportunities, 4.2% cited salary levels, and 3.2% cited parental influence.

___________________________
Reasons for Changing Position

Over 20% of those who changed position cited better professional opportunities; 8 to 9% changed to a different type of work. Approximately one-fourth of the respondents indicated that they have had no change.  

Reasons for Changing Position All Respondents  CPA’S 
Poor working conditions 10.4%  10.9% 
Better professional opportunity  22.3%  22.7% 
Better salary offer 4.4%  4.0% 
Job eliminated/company moved or dissolved  6.3%  6.1% 
Excessive travel 1.5%  1.6% 
Change to different type of work  8.6%  9.1% 
Spouse's transfer  4.6%  4.9% 
Family responsibilities  5.4%  6.6% 
Sexual discrimination 0.9%  1.3% 
To start own business  6.8%  8.2% 
Other  0.4%  0.3% 
No change  25.6%  22.5% 
Unreported 2.8%  1.8% 
  100.0%  100.0% 

Personal Characteristics
___________________________
Distribution by Age  

Distribution by Age   All Respondents  CPA's 
  1977  1996  1977  1996 
25 and Under 15.1%  3.9%  15.6%  1.5% 
26-29 17.5%  9.2%  25.2%  9.1% 
30-34 13.3%  17.6%  17.4%  19.6% 
35-39 8.1%  20.2%  10.2%  22.4% 
40-44 7.5%  17.4%  7.1%  18.3% 
45-49 10.5%  13.1%  9.0%  13.2% 
50-54 10.6%  8.5%  6.2%  8.1% 
55-59 8.3%  4.0%  3.5%  3.7% 
60-64 5.2%  2.5%  3.1%  2.0% 
65 and Over 3.9%  3.0%  2.7%  2.0% 
Unreported   0.6%    0.1% 
  100.0%  100.0%  100.0%  100.0% 

Of the CPAs, 26.6% passed the CPA Exam by the age of 24 and 62.2% passed the exam by the age of 30.

___________________________


Education Achievements

Over 68% of respondents have baccalaureate degrees and over 22% have masters degrees.  

Education Achievements All Respondents  CPA's 
  1977  1996  1977  1996 
No College 5.6%  0.6%  0.9%  0.0% 
Some College 19.2%  4.4%  7.2%  1.3% 
Associate Degree  5.0%  2.8%  1.9%  0.7% 
Baccalaureate Degree 52.5%  68.1%  66.8%  71.1% 
Masters Degree  13.2%  22.0%  19.1%  24.7% 
Law Degree 0.4%  0.6%  0.5%  0.9% 
Doctorate 1.3%  0.9%  2.0%  1.2% 
Unreported  2.8%  0.6%  1.6%  0.1% 
  100.0%  100.0%  100.0%  100.0% 

___________________________
Career Interruptions for Family Responsibilities

Over 81% of the respondents are or have been married. More than 51% have children, yet over 58% report that they have never interrupted their career for family responsibilities.  

Career Interruptions for Family Responsibilities All Respondents  CPA’S 
Not at all 58.8%  58.7% 
6 months or less 15.5%  17.1% 
6 months to 1 year 4.1%  3.8% 
Over 1 - up to 3 years 6.0%  5.7% 
Over 3 - up to 5 years 4.1%  3.8% 
Over 5 - up to 7 years 2.4%  2.1% 
Over 7 - up to 9 years 2.5%  2.6% 
10 years and over 5.5%  4.9% 
Unreported 1.1%  1.3% 
  100.0%  100.0% 

This brochure details the 1996 results of a survey of over 20,000 women accountants and CPAs and provides a professional profile of women in the accounting profession. The data has been compiled and prepared by: Elise G. Jancura, Ph.D., CPA

The survey and publication of this brochure are funded by:
The Educational Foundation for Women in Accounting
National Headquarters
P.O. Box 1925
Southeastern, PA 19399-1925
(610) 407-9229 Fax (610) 644-3713

Additional copies of the brochure are available from the Foundation at the above address.

Participants in the survey are members of the following organizations:
American Woman's Society of Certified Public Accountants
American Society of Women Accountants
American Institute of Certified Public Accountants
Institute of Management Accountants

We wish to thank Lida C. Allen and Louise F. Boston of Information Services & Technology at Cleveland State University for their assistance in the production of this document.

© Copyright 1997 by Elise G. Jancura, Ph.D., CPA.
and the Educational Foundation for Women in Accounting

 
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Phone (610) 407-9229    e-mail: info@efwa.org
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